五台山圣地信仰可以说是印度文殊信仰的一个延续和衍伸。a 圣地信仰的形成是一个渐续的过程。在佛教的三藏中，前后有三部经典含有释迦牟尼佛对文殊的预言。b 在此三部经中对文殊菩萨住处的描绘，分别为大雪山，清凉山，和五顶山。佛教徒根据佛经中的描述，对比山西境内的五峰山的地理风貌和自然气候等，c 都吻合文殊菩萨教化道场。因此，便有了文殊道场由一个印度的概念向中国本土的迁移及落地, 形成了中国的“五台山圣地信仰”。

  那么这种迁移的目的是什么呢？陈金华教授在其“东亚佛教中的边地情结”d 一文中指出是“边地情结”促成了佛教圣地由印度向中国的迁移。“边地”被看作是“八难” 之一。e 古代中国和古代印度都有将本国作为世界中心的认识。 那么从印度的角度来考量中国即为边地。而中国人古时所受的教育是，中国乃是世界甚至宇宙之中心。释迦牟尼佛也曾在佛经中讲述了为世界的中心是舍卫国。这就使汉传佛教徒陷入了两难， 哪里是中央哪里是边地？ 众所周知，佛法是不及三途八难之所的，那假使以印度的宇宙观，华夏中国是边地的话，成佛证道在中国将是不可能的。随着佛教根植于中国社会各阶层，有识之士便有意识地去改变这种边地的看法，特别是随着大乘佛教在中国不断壮大，越来越多的中国佛教徒不光把印度作为佛法的世界中心，也将中国视为佛教新的中心。从而使汉传佛教的宇宙观与印度有了改变。这一转变也得到了许多印度佛教大师们的认可，对此下文有更多的详述。

  对中国中古时期的五台山描述最为准确详细的不是在哪一部传志、游记、诗词亦或是碑文中，而是在一副地图上，即敦煌61窟中的 “五台山图”。对这幅地图王静芬博士以及林伟正博士等均有专著，进行过细致的研究。f 这幅图的功用至少有两个，一个是地图的本身价值，为朝圣者提供路线提示；二是弘扬文殊信仰，将五台山神圣空间提高到一个人间净土的地位。本文就从敦煌61窟的 “五台山图”展开，来探讨一下五台山圣地与人间净土的关系。

  敦煌61窟“五台山图”的左中上方，介于南台和西台之间有一文字标注“青琉璃世界”。不仅如此，在敦煌经卷里的《五台山赞》也有“佛子，代州东北有五台山，其山高广与天连，东台望见琉璃国，西台还间给孤园”之类的句子。杜斗城以为是指的东方药师琉璃世界g，而西方一些学者如Catelli认为它是标示文殊菩萨的净土h。本文倾向于后者的解释。尽管“青琉璃世界”这一标注在“五台山图”中不是很醒目，但整个图的布局结构与绘画角度都能体现此图的宗教功能。比如它的布局和其他佛经的经变图（如弥陀经经变图）是一致的; 它的绘画角度也是鸟瞰式的，也和佛经的经变图一致。i 再者，“五台山图”的位置处于敦煌61窟文殊窟的正后方，此洞窟是专门供奉文殊菩萨的，原来的洞窟正中间是文殊菩萨的塑像，现已毁坏不存。而61 窟其他侧面的壁画是佛经的经变图， 大部分描绘的是其他世界的净土。因而从此图在61 窟中所在的位置，也能体现五台山文殊菩萨圣地与净土的性质是相同的。

  但“青琉璃世界”作为五台山文殊菩萨净土的出处我们不能有更确切的引证。在《佛说不思议功德诸佛所护念经》中我们有发现，“青琉璃世界”是被列于西北方的一个世界，此净土的佛号为“身相如来”。j 这是关于“青琉璃世界”的最早出处。那么菩萨所居世界可为净土吗？ 鸠摩罗什所译《维摩经·佛国品》佛陀对宝积菩萨如此说：“随成就众生，则佛土净；随佛土净，则说法净；随说法净，则智慧净；随智慧净， 则其心净；随其心净，则一切功德净。是故宝积！若菩萨欲得净土，当净其心；随其心净，则佛土净。”k 因此菩萨所居世界也可为净土。五台山也不是唯一有琉璃称谓的佛教圣地。普陀山也被称为琉璃世界，因为观音菩萨的道场也是光明净土。l

  五台山图可分为为上中下三个区域。m 最上端为菩萨圣众的区域， 加以雷公电母，龙天护法之类的超自然力量。中间为五台山的各个寺院， 最下端为两条朝山路线，以及奔忙在朝圣途中的各阶层的人士。与凡夫不同的是，菩萨圣众的出现都是在云端。还有其他的文殊菩萨的化现， 也是出现在云端，比如佛手、金桥、功德天女、圣灯、佛首等等。这些化现大都是散落在中部的寺院区域。说明是与山上的僧众与朝圣的信众有交集的。再者，菩萨圣境中的化寺，比如大圣竹林寺、金阁寺等的寺院也是被如实建造在五台山上了。即使无缘见到菩萨的化现，也能见到圣境中的复制，给朝圣者信心。这种凡圣同居，化现寺院圣境与现实的交集，是五台山特有的。因此为了一睹圣地菩萨的真容，佛教徒不远万里前来朝拜。在五台山图的最底端，我们看到从两条不同朝山路线上劳碌奔波的信众。这种忙碌与我们在图中部寺院区域看到的人的神态有很大区别，到达到圣地的信众的神态是非常安祥、满足。或坐、或站、或拜。图中的朝圣者包括从印度、朝鲜、日本、斯里兰卡等国来的，当然更包括国内的各个地区及少数民族的信众们。敦煌“五台山图”不仅是一张朝圣的地图，更是一张人间净土图。此处的人间净土是包容的，包含对外来文化的接受，对本土宗教的宽容，对民间信仰的涵融。这里的人间净土是平等的，对不同阶层的信众平等对待。

  “五台山图”中还有一特例需要说明。那就是佛陀波利与文殊菩萨示现的圣老人两次相遇，在此图中也有两次的出现。Dorothy Wong在她的文章中对这一事例强调“五台山图”的图像叙事相对于时间性，它描绘的更是空间性。“关于文殊化现最著名的记载是676年罽宾（今克什米尔）沙门佛陀波利巡礼五台山时，值遇文殊化老人的故事。故事讲的是文殊化现一老人指点佛陀波利从西土取回密教经典《佛顶尊胜陀罗尼经》后老人带他入金刚窟……该传说的题记和插图在壁画中出现了两次，因为佛陀波利与［圣］老人相遇了两次。画中没有云，因为文殊示现的是人身，所以事件的描绘带有具体的、历史的、时间性的背景。为了表明事件的重要性，［圣］老人与佛陀波利比其他人物大得多。”n

  这一历史事件至今还有两件物证留存于五台山：一是佛光寺唐代的“佛顶尊胜陀罗尼经幢”；二是金刚窟前的佛陀波利塔。相对于图像的艺术性，本文考虑的更是文殊菩萨的精神与思想。从这一事例中我们体会到了文殊菩萨与时具进的精神，佛教是与时代相结合的，而不是脱离现实社会的。在7—8世纪时，密教在印度盛行，五台山作为中印佛教的交流中心，它永远都是引领着佛教的发展方向。文殊菩萨教化的圣地及时地吸纳了这种新的教派。使这方青琉璃净土更具吸引力。在佛陀波利将密教经典《佛顶尊胜陀罗尼经》带到五台山后的几十年间，密教的大师们在五台山上也留下了他们的足迹。如“开元三大士”之不空在五台山上修建了金阁寺。o 因此，密教在中国的传播，五台山的贡献非常大。

  文殊菩萨在密教的地位也是非常之高。

  上文提到“五台山图”的功能之一便是给朝圣者们提供路线图。朝礼五台山的佛教徒中，最著名的莫过日本的圆仁大师了，我们从他的角度来了解朝山路线对朝圣的信徒的重要性。尽管敦煌61 窟“五台山图” 要晚于圆仁《入唐求法巡礼行记》近一百年左右，但两种文献描绘的朝山路线大体没有什么改变。在这两条延续几百公里的朝山路线的沿途中， 布有许多的“普通院”免费供应来往的朝山信徒食宿。p 尽管在五台山上有许许多多的寺院，但朝山的系统却是统一的，也就是说五台山上的每座寺院不是独立的单位，所有寺院是作为一个有机的整体，运作、提供给来往的朝圣者们方便。“普通院”的接待是一律平等的，不分等级、身份、国籍。这也是菩萨精神的具体实践，普通供养，平等对待。“五台山图”中的朝山路线是文殊菩萨智慧的化身，慈悲的接引。

  那么信众对圣地、人间净土的向往具体表现在哪里呢？以圆仁为例我们来探讨一下朝圣信众对五台山的具体向往，换句话说五台山圣地能给佛教徒提供什么。对圆仁大师来说，首先是欲睹文殊菩萨示现说法， 亦或是在人间净土的圣境中朝拜各个圣迹，效仿先贤们的修行法门。q 其次圆仁来五台山的另一个目的是求见志远法师学习天台教义。r 此外， 圆仁还将五台山的许多修行仪轨带回了日本，包括五会念佛等。五台山上的修行法门、仪轨、教义于信徒而言很多都是由文殊菩萨亲自授与的， 从而人们来朝拜圣地净土的目的是传播文殊信仰，撒播智慧。菩萨的利他精神，在这青琉璃世界时时处处地存在。

  文殊信仰、圣地情怀一直在影响着中国乃至整个大乘佛教。上文提到许多印度的高僧也都认同了汉传佛教的宇宙观。认为华夏大地为佛教新的中心，并纷纷来到中国延续中印佛教交流的纽带。为了阐述五台山圣地净土的时间上的延续性，本文列举两位元明时期来到五台山的印度僧侣。一位是元末时期来华的具生吉祥大师；大师出生于尼泊尔，出家受教于克什米尔。他曾受邀到了元明两朝的宫廷为元顺帝和明太祖分别说法，并被受封为元朝的国师，明朝的善世禅师。s “善世禅师”是明初最高阶位的僧官，统领全天下的佛教。t 这样的一位高僧他最向往的地方就是五台山。另外一位印度僧侣是室利沙。u 这位大师出生于皇室，出家于菩提伽耶，并在佛陀成道圣地成为住持。大师不远万里来朝礼五台山，并将菩提伽耶代表佛陀成道的金刚宝塔复建于圣地五台山。v其复建金刚宝塔的目的是为了正法久住。印度佛陀成道的圣地复制在中国佛教的圣地“文殊道场五台山”，这一举动代表着圣地文殊信仰在时间性上的延续与加强。

  五台山圣地信仰的延续不仅体现在它的时间性上，在空间性上也在不断延续。 两宋之际，南北方战争不断。为了延续五台山圣地信仰，西夏在其统治范围内的贺兰山上复建了五台山。对贺兰山上的“北五台山”，陈庆英先生在“西夏大乘玄密帝师的生平”中有详细论证。除了西夏的“北五台山”外，更有辽契丹国复建的“小五台山”。杜斗城先生在《五台山文献》一文中对辽国的“小五台山”有详细介绍。五台山圣地信仰不仅在中国生根发芽，并在海外抽枝散叶。受中国五台山的启发，日本与朝鲜僧侣们也纷纷在其国家复制自己的五台山。在镰田茂雄的“东亚地区佛教圣地五台山和五台山信仰在日本的传播”一文中，对日本与朝鲜僧侣如何建立他们自己的五台山有翔实的论证。耶鲁大学的金延美博士在她最近的一片文章中，也介绍了韩国五台山的缘起w，本文就不再累述。最后本文重要介绍的是加拿大五台山。五台山在加拿大的复造是由多伦多湛山精舍肇起的一项工程。尽管此项工程还未完工，但早已引起了众多学者的注意。其中，Susan Andrews 教授就专文论述了加拿大五台山这一宏大工程的过程，并阐述了五台山圣地信仰在加拿大各种文化传统中所具的价值和意义。x

  文殊信仰在中国的落地、五台山圣地的确立，对佛教中国化起到了至关重要的作用。本文通过敦煌61 窟“五台山图”中的一些细节，阐述了这不只是一幅普通的地图，而是对人间净土的描绘。五台山青琉璃世界就是文殊菩萨在人间创造的净土。文殊菩萨以他的智慧，将大乘佛教的菩萨精神具体落实到了五台山。五台山不再是中国的一地理坐标，它已成为了文殊圣地信仰的符号，跨越了时间和地域的局限，将文殊智慧、菩萨精神与时代相结合一直在传递着，延续着。

  a 　Lamotte, Etienne,“Mañjuśrī”, T’ong Pao 48, nos.1-3 (1960). p.1-96

  b 　于阗僧人实叉难陀7 世纪晚期所译的《华严经》，印度僧人菩提流支在8 世纪初所译的《佛说文殊師利法宝藏陀罗尼经》，和一部名为《文殊势利般涅槃经》，据说是聂道真在3 世纪晚期所译的。

  c 　郦道元，《水经注》（王先谦，1892）卷 23：“其山，五峦巍然，迥出群山之上， 故谓五峰。”

  d 　陈金华：《东亚佛教中的边地情结：论圣地及祖谱的建构》，《佛学研究》，2012 年第21 期。

  e 　地狱难，畜生难，饿鬼难（三趣，三恶，三途），长寿天，边地，怀颠倒心，盲聋瘖哑，不值佛。

  f 　Wong, Dorothy.“A Reassessment of the Representation of Mt. Wutai from Dunhuang Cave 61”,Archives of Asian Art, Vol. 46 (1993), pp. 27-52. Lin, Wei-cheng. Building a Sacred Mountain The Buddhist Architecture of China’s Mount Wutai, Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2014.

  g 　杜斗城：《敦煌五台山文献校录研究》，第7页。

  h 　Cartelli, Mary Anne. The Five-Colored Clouds of Mount Wutai: Poems from Dunhuang. P.91.

  i 　Lin,Wei-cheng. Building a Sacred Mountain the Buddhist Architecture of China’s Mount Wutai, pp.188-189.

  j 　T14n00445_002《佛说不思议功德诸佛所护念经》。

  k 　T14n0475_001《维摩诘所说经》。

  l 　《华严经》：“于此南方有山，名補呾洛伽，彼有菩萨名观世音自在。”(T10n0279_068) 此处的“補呾洛伽”即是梵文Potalaka，意思是光明。琉璃为印度的一种青色宝石，可放净光。因此琉璃代表净澈光明。所以称普陀山为琉璃世界。

  m 　 Wong, Dorothy. A Reassessment of the Representation of Mt. Wutai from Dunhuang Cave 61”,Archives of Asian Art, Vol. 46 (1993), p.32.

  n 　王静芬著，冀培然译 ：“敦煌61窟《五台山图》的再探讨”《东吴文化遗产5》，上海三联书店，2015年。

  o 　p.147 T52n2120_001 《两部大法相承师资付法记上》。

  p 　[ 日] 小野勝年：《入唐求法巡礼行记の研究》卷2，p.405-409.

  q 　[ 日] 小野勝年：《入唐求法巡礼行记の研究》卷3，p.4; p.63。

  r 　Palmer ，“Searching for the Law” p.205-208.

  s 　崔正森、王志超： 《五台山碑文选注》，太原：北岳文艺出版社，1995年，第 185-188页。

  t 　宽广：”Sahajaśrī: a great Indian Buddhist missionary to China”, Religions of South Asia, VOL 1, NO 2 (2007).

  u 　（明）镇澄 ：《清凉山志》，第36-37页。

  v 　宽广：“The Travels of a 15th Century Abbot of Bodh Gaya: the Chakma Monk Śāriputra’s Journey to Wutai Shan” , Mañjuśrī in Motion:Multi-cultural, Cross-religious Characteristics and International Impact of the Wutai Cult, forthcoming.

  w 　Kim,Youn-mi，“Surrogate Body inside a Statue: Later Mañjuśrī Worship on Korea’s Wutaishan (Odaesan)”， Mañjuśrī in Motion:Multi-cultural, Cross-religious Characteristics and International Impact of the Wutai Cult, forthcoming.

  x 　Andrews, Susan，“Recreating the Mountain of Five Plateaus in Contemporary Canada”，Mañjuśrī in Motion:Multi-cultural, Cross-religious Characteristics and International Impact of the Wutai Cult, forthcoming.

  Belief in the mountain Wutai as a sacred place can be considered as a continuation and extension of the Indian cult of Mañjuśrī. The formation of the belief of the sacred mountain of Wutai was a gradual process. The prophesy of Śākyamuni about Mañjuśrī can be found in three sutras within the Buddhist Tripitaka. Three names were used to indicate the dwelling place of Mañjuśrī bodhisattva in these three scriptures: Daxue mountain ( 大雪山)，Qingjing mountain ( 清凉山)，and Wuding mountain ( 五顶山). According to these descriptions, Buddhists contrasted and compared the geographic features and the peculiar climate of Mountain Wufeng in Shanxi province which all were identical and could equally be taken as the sacred site of Mañjuśrī. Therefore, Mountain Wufeng has been associated with Mañjuśrī; the Indian concept of Mañjuśrī’s abode has transformed and localized in the Chinese soil, and furthermore formed the notion of sacredness of Mountain Wutai.

  What was the purpose of this transformation? Jinhua Chen in his paper “The ‘Borderland Complex’ in East Asian Buddhism: a discussion of the development of sacred space and genealogies” suggests “borderland complex” facilitated the transformation of a Buddhist sacred place from India to China. “Borderland” can be taken as one of the “ Eighth Difficulties”. Both ancient India and ancient China viewed themselves as the center of the world. From the Indian point of the view China was a borderland. However, ancient Chinese held the same view that China was the center of universe. As we know that Buddhism cannot be practiced under the condition of “Eight Difficulties” (八难). In an early Buddhist geographic and cosmological understanding, China would be a borderland, and to become a Buddha in such a place was impossible. Thus it had caused confusion when Buddhism was introduced to China.

  When the Buddhist teaching took roots in various stratums of Chinese society, some elite Chinese Buddhists initiated the transformation of the perception of China as a “borderland”. Particularly when Mahayana Buddhism gained more and more popularity in China, a growing number of Buddhists did not merely perceive India as the center of the Buddhist world, but also started to believe China is the new center in Buddhist cosmology. This change of perception was received and approved by some great Indian Buddhist masters, and we will address some of them later.

  The most detailed and in-depth description of Wutai Shan in the mediaeval period is not in any annals, travelogues, or poetry, but in a map, precisely, the “map of Wutai Shan” in Dunhuang Cave 61. Many people have done research on this map, such as Dorothy Wong and Wei-cheng Lin. This map served at least to two functions: first, as a value in itself, and provide detailed pilgrimage routes for pious Buddhist followers; secondly, portraying the image of Mañjuśrī, it nourished the notion of a sacred space of Wutai as a Pure Land on earth. This paper aims at examining the connection between the sacred space of Wutai Shan and the Pure Land on earth by looking at some of the details of the “map of Wutai Shan” in Dunhuang Cave 61.

  In the“map of Wutai Shan”of Dunhuang Cave 61, on its top left between the South Terrace and West Terrace, there is a description text “Realm of Blue Lapis Lazuli”. Regarding this description text scholars hold different opinions. Du Doucheng suggests that it refers to the realm of Bhaiṣajyaguru, but some Western scholars such as Catelli who believes it is the Pure Land of bodhisattva Mañjuśrī. In this paper we are inclined to take the side of the second explanation. Even though the description text of the ‘Realm of Blue Lapis Lazuli’ within the layout of the map is not that eye-catching, “From the point of view of its interior composition and its location in the cave…may explain better how its presents or reveals a transcendent vision of the sacred mountain.” The composition of the central area of the map is very similar to the sutra painting of the Pure Land. The panoramic view of the map is also comparable with that of sutra paintings.

  Furthermore, the location of the map in Dunhuang cave 61 is situated on the west wall, and facing to the entrance. This cave was dedicated to bodhisattva Mañjuśrī though his image in the centre of the cave does not exist anymore. Other walls of the cave 61 are covered with mural paintings of Buddhist sutras. Thus, the location of this map in the cave also reflects the notion of the map is the sacred space of Mañjuśrī.

  We cannot find any source to prove ‘the realm of Blue Lapis Lazuli’ is referring to Wutai Shan, the dwelling place of bodhisattva Mañjuśrī. What we know about ‘the realm of Blue Lapis Lazuli’ is a realm that is situated in the north-west direction, and the Buddha of the realm is called “Shenxiang Rulai” in Praise of the Inconceivale Virtue and Protection by All Buddha Sutra(《佛说不思议功德诸佛所护念经》). Can a bodhisattva’s dwelling place become a pure land? In the Vimalakīrt sutra(translated by Kumārajīva ) the Buddha said to the Baoji Bodhisattva ( 佛国品):

  If a bodhisattva vows to help sentient beings to attain enlightenment, [his dwelling place becomes] the Buddha’s Pure Land, if one [dwells] in the Pure Land, then he can teach the dharma purely [with no deviations]; if one teaches the dharma purely, then the knowledge [transmitted] is pure; and his mind also is pure; if his mind is pure, then all the virtues are pure. Thus, Baoji! If Bodhisattva wishes to dwell in a Pure Land, he should purify his mind, when the mind is purified he [then dwells in] the Buddha’s Pure Land.

  Therefore, the realm where the Bodhisattva dwells can become a Pure Land. Wutai Shan is not the only place addressed as a realm of lazuli. Putuo Shan (where bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara dwells) is also said to be a realm lazuli.

  The “map of Wutai Shan” in Dunhuang cave 61 can be divided into three levels. The top level consists with bohhisattvas and their retinues, plus the God of thunder and the Goddess of lightning and many other celestial warriors like supernatural powers. In the middle level of the map consists with many monasteries of Wutai Shan. The bottom level consists with two pilgrimage routes, and people who are traveling to the sacred mountain. Different from ordinary people, bodhisattvas and their retinues are appeared above the clouds. The various transformations of bodhisattva Mañjuśrī are also appeared above clouds. Such as a hand the Buddha, golden bridge, lakṣmī(the Indian goddess of wealth), holy lamp, and the head of the Buddha etc. all of these transformations are mostly scattered in the mid register among Buddhist monasteries. This shows that monks and pilgrims on Wutai Shan have encountered bodhisattvas and their retinues. Moreover, ‘the conjured temples’ in the bodhisattva’s transformed landscapes, such as the Great Sage Bamboo Grove Monastery, the Golden Pavilion Monastery were constructed accordingly on Wutai Shan. (The pilgrims) even have no chance to encounter any transformation of the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, nevertheless they could see the copies of the holy landscapes in the transformation, and this gives more confidence for pilgrims to believe that this is the earthly dwelling place of bodhisattva Mañjuśrī.

  Such a co-inhabit locality of mundane and super-mundane, and transformed landscapes have been turned into reality is unique to Wutai Shan. Therefore, many pilgrims from far and wide would travel to Wutai Shan to pay their homage to Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī.

  From the two different routes pilgrims are travelling to the centre of the map where monasteries are situated; the depiction of these pilgrims on the road are always moving, which are differ from the postures of those who have arrived in the centre of Wutai Shan. Those who have arrived are very calm and peaceful; they are either standing, seating, or worshiping various of religious sites.

  Many pilgrims from this map are from foreign lands such as Kashmir, India, Korea, Japan and Sri Lanka etc; of course there are more pilgrims from various parts of China. The map of Wutai Shan in Dunhuang Cave 61 is not a pilgrimage map only; it is a painting of pure land on earth. This is an embraceable Pure Land, and it embraces foreign cultures, embraces other Chinese religions, and even it embraces the local cults. It shows everyone is equal in this pure land, people from different countries, backgrounds are all treated equally, and there is no class and no division.

  A special legend in the ‘map of Wutai Shan’ needs to be emphasized. That is how Buddhapālita encountered bodhisattva Mañjuśrī (who had been in the guise of an old man) twice. The illustrations of this legend are indicated twice in the map. Dorothy Wong has explained in her paper that the illustrations of the legend in this map are to emphasize the spatiality rather than the temporality: “The most famous account of his manifestations is that Mañjuśrī appeared to the Kashmiri monk Buddhapālita (Fotuo Poli), who came to China and visited Mt. Wutai in the year 676. The monk encountered Mañjuśrī in the guise of an old man, who asked if he had brought from the West a copy of the Tantric text Uṣṇīṣ a vijaya dhāraṇ ī sūtra (Foding zunsheng tuoluoni jing))… Inscriptions and illustrations of this legend are indicated twice in the mural as the Kashmiri monk had encountered the old man twice. Clouds are not depicted, since Mañjuśrī manifested himself in human flesh and the event is therefore given a specific, historical, and temporal context. However, to indicate the importance of the event, the old man and the monk are much larger than the rest of the figures.”

  To prove this was not only a legend but also a historical event, two pieces of evidence are still standing on Wutai Shan today. One is the Uṣṇīṣa vijaya dhāraṇī sutrapillar in Foguang Temple, and the other is Buddhapālita’s stupa in front of the Diamond Grotto. This paper is intending to reflect more light on the spirit of bodhisattva through analyzing some of the map details rather than the artistic value of the map. From this legend we learned that the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī’s teaching has always closely related to the contemporary world, and has never lost in touch with reality. Around the 7th—8th century, esoteric Buddhism had gained more popularity in India. Wutai Shan as the Sino-Indian Buddhist interaction center, its Buddhist development had always closely kept in touch with new Buddhist movements in India. Therefore, bodhisattva Mañjuśrī urged Buddhapālita to bring esoteric Buddhist texts to Wutai Shan, and made this Blue Lapis Lazuli Pure Land more attractive to Buddhists. In the next several decades after Buddhapālita brought the Uṣṇīṣa vijaya dhāraṇī sutratoto Wutai Shan,many other tantric masters followed his footstep and made their contributions to the advancement of esoteric Buddhism on this mountain. Such as one of the three great tantric masters of the Kaiyuan era, Amoghavajra, constructed the golden pavilion monastery on Wutai Shan. We believe Wutai Shan had played an important role in introducing the esoteric Buddhism to China, and that is why Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī is highly regarded in this Buddhist tradition.

  As mentioned above that one of the functions of “the map of Wutai Shan” is to provide Buddhists a map of pilgrimage routes to this holy place. Among all the pilgrims who went to Wutai Shan, no one is better known than Japanese monk Ennin. Using Ennin’s case let us try to understand the importance of these routes to pilgrims. Although Ennin made his pilgrimage to Wutai Shan almost one century ahead of the creation of the map in Dunhuang cave 61, nonetheless the description of the routes from Ennin’s diary is not much different from the map. Along these pilgrimage routes, many way stations were built to provide pilgrims free accommodation and food. Hundreds of Buddhist establishments co-existed on Wutai Shan, way stations along the pilgrimage routes did not belong to any particular monastery. All the way stations functioned as one system to provide conveniences for all pilgrims, no matter which sites they were intending to visit. In these way stations, all pilgrims were treated equally, no difference between classes, origins, nationalities etc. This management has reflected Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī’s spirit, and each station and their stuff were the embodiment of Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī’s spirit.

  Why were so many pilgrims longing for this sacred site? Once again, let us look at Ennin’s trip to Wutai Shan and try to figure it out what were those specific reasons that drove him to Wutai Shan. As written in his own diary, Ennin explained first of all he was hoping to encounter bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, and to receive the direct teaching of the true dharma. Secondly he had the intention to study Tiantai teaching under master Zhiyuan. What’s more, Ennin had brought back many Buddhist rituals to Japan, including “Five Styles of Reciting the Buddha’s Name”( 五会念佛). Many practices, rituals on Wutai Shan were directly handed down from bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, therefore, the aim of paying a pilgrimage to this pure land is to spread the belief of Mañjuśrī, and transmit Mañjuśrī’s wisdom to a wider circle. The true spirit of a bodhisattva, to benefit others, has explicitly expounded in the Realm of Blue Lapis Lazuli.

  The belief of bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, and the belief of the Sacred Mountain Wutai have influenced Chinese Buddhism and even the whole Mahayana Buddhist world. We have mentioned above that many Indian great masters reconciled the Indian concept of the center of the universe with Chinese, and accepted China as the new center of the Buddhist world. Many of them travelled far to China and extended and strengthened the Buddhist connection between these two civilizations. Apart from the above-mentioned Indian mastersBuddhapālita and Amoghavajra, there were many others followed their footsteps. The following two great Indian masters came to Wutai Shan around the Yuan-Ming transitional period. The first one is Sahajaśrī who came to China at the end of Yuan dynasty. He was born in Nepal, ordained in Kashmir. He had been invited to the Yuan and Ming imperial courts, and taught Buddhism to the last Yuan emperor and the first Ming emperor. He was bestowed a title of “National preceptor” by the last Yuan emperor, and “The Chan Master Who Betters the World” (善世禅师)by the first Ming emperor. The last title and “The Chan Master Who Betters the World” was the highest monk official created by the first Ming emperor to be in charge of the whole Chinese Buddhist affairs. Another great Indian master who came to China in the early Ming dynasty is Śāriputra. He was born into a royal family in East India, and ordained in Bodh Gaya, and eventually he became the abbot of Bodh Gaya. He traveled through Nepal and Tibet, reached Wutai Shan in the Yongle era. He had constructed a Maha Bodhi replica on Wutai Shan. To build Maha Bodhi replica was to counter the decline of Buddhism. The construction of Maha Bodhi replica on Wutai Shan has a significant meaning to the sacredness of this site.

  The formation and transformation of the Wutai Shan culthas gone beyond in time and space. During the Song period, civil wars between different ethnics had never really stopped. In order to sustain the belief of the scared mountain Wutai in their region, the ruler of the Tangutduplicated the scared site for venerating bodhisattva Mañjuśrī on Mountain Helan, and named the site as same as Wutai Shan. Regarding the Tangut’s Wutai Shan on Helan Mountain Qingying Chen has detailed discussion in his paper “Xiaxia Dacheng Xuanmi Dishi de Shengping”. Apart from the Tangut’s Wutai Shan, Khitan constructed a‘Miniature of Wutai Shan’ in their region. One could learn more about this “Miniature of Wutai Shan” in Du Doucheng’s book Wutai Shan Wenxian. The belief in sacred Mountain Wutai has not been limited within China, Many Wutai Shan replicas have been constructed outside China. Kamata Shigeo’s paper “The Buddhist sacred mountain Wutai in East Asia and the spread of the Belief of Wutai Shan in Japan” is an excellent research on how Japanese built a Wutai Shan replica in Japan. KimYoun-mi of Yale University recently wrote a paper on Korean Odaesan, and briefly discussed the origin of the Korean Wutai Shan. Most recently, the Canadian Chinese Buddhist community has started to constructareplica of Wutai Shan in Toronto. Susan Andrews has paid attention to this huge project, and discussed the impact of the Wutai Shan cult in a multi-cultural and cross-religious background.

  The formation and transformation of the cult centered on Wutai Shan and its dwelling bodhisattva Mañjuśrī played an important role in the sinicisation of Buddhism. This paper has analyzed some details of the “the map of Wutai Shan” in Dunhuang Cave 61, and through these details we understood that it is not a normal map but a painting of a Pure Land. This Pure Land does exist on earth, and that is the Realm of Blue Lapis Lazuli of Wutai Shan, which is created by Mañjuśrī.Mañjuśrī with his wisdom embodied the true bodhisattva spirit in this formation and transformation process of the Wutai Shan cult. Wutai Shan is not only a landmark of China, it has become a symbol of Mañjuśrī cult, and it has gone beyond the constraints of temporality and spatiality. It has also become the embodiment of wisdom, the spirit of bodhisattva Mañjuśrī.

  References:

  ① 　Andrews, Susan，“Recreating the Mountain of Five Plateaus in Contemporary Canada”，Mañjuśrī in Motion:Multi-cultural, Cross-religious Characteristics and International Impact of the Wutai Cult, forthcoming.