印顺法师是重要的“人间佛教”理论奠基人。他在继承、借鉴太虚“人生佛教”a基础上发展和完善了自己的“人间佛教”思想。印顺法师的“人间佛教”思想具有旺盛的生命力，至今为中外佛教界的众多领袖所继承和弘扬。在今天，“人间佛教”已经不仅是一种学术思潮，而且是具有国际影响的佛教适应社会的现代化转型实践。我们在这个时候重温印顺法师的旧著作，观察当前佛教的新开拓，不仅会加深对传统佛教的理解，也有利于全面认识当今佛教的发展现状，把握佛教的未来走向。

  印顺法师的人间佛教思想从开始酝酿到基本定型，大约在20世纪40年代到50年代b。体现他酝酿“人间佛教”思想的著作，是在1941年前后写作的《佛在人间》、《佛教是无神论的宗教》、《法海探真》等。大约到1951年前后，又写作了《人间佛教绪言》、《从依机设教来说明人间佛教》、《人性》、《人间佛教要略》等。印顺法师认为，早在他讲述《佛在人间》等著作时，不但“对全体佛法的看法，逐渐凝定， 也有了表示意见的意欲”c。这表明，他是在对整体佛教形成自己的看法之后，才开始论述“人间佛教”问题的。

  他之所以开始重视“人间佛教”这个问题，有两个重要原因。其一， 受到20 世纪二三十年代以来佛教信徒为适应社会而从事的各种慈善和教育事业的感召。他指出：“民国以来，佛教的法师、居士，都有适应社会的感觉，或办慈善、教育事业等，不问成绩如何，但确是认识并倾向于这一方面——佛教是人间的。”d“佛教是人间的”，正是印顺法师“人间佛教”思想的一个重要内容。他把这种佛教界办慈善、教育等事业， 作为佛教适应社会的表现，作为人间佛教实践运动的体现。

  其二，受到佛教思想界持续高涨的“人间佛教”思潮的影响。他指出“人间佛教的论题，民国以来，即逐渐被提起。民国二十三年（1934）， 《海潮音》出过人间佛教专号，当时曾博得许多人的同情。后来，慈航法师在星洲，办了一个佛教刊物，名为《人间佛教》。抗战期间，浙江缙云县也出了小型的《人间佛教月刊》，前年法舫法师在暹罗，也以‘人间佛教’为题来讲说。”e

  在印顺法师看来，民国初年以来的“人间佛教”的社会实践和理论探讨，是佛教适应社会的过程。所以，在他的“人间佛教”理论中，适应社会的发展就成为受到强调的一个方面。对于什么是适应社会、佛教如何适应社会等问题，印顺法师都有专门的论述。

  首先，适应社会，就是要在了解社会的基础上，充分发挥佛教的善世利人的作用，印顺法师指出：“了解现代中国人的动向，适应他，化导他， 为以佛法济世的重要一着。”f 所谓“适应社会”就是要“以佛法济世”， 绝对不是迎合社会上形形色色“低级趣味”g 的东西。这一点经常为印顺长老所强调。

  第二，适应社会就是佛教必须实现自身的变革。印顺法师在其著作中反复强调，如果把佛法“看成一成不变的东西”，看成“放之四海而皆准，推之百代而可行”的东西，也就“违背了佛法”。印顺法师通过对佛陀“说法立制”的辨析，阐明佛教的思想、制度和风尚都处于适应现实的变化之中：

  佛陀应机说法立制，就是世谛流布，缘起的世谛流布，不能不因时、因地、因人而有所演变，有所发展。尽管“法界常住”，而人间佛教——思想、制度、风尚，都在息息流变的过程中。h

  在经典所记录的佛法中，并没有放之四海而皆准的抽象教条。从印顺法师关于佛教要适应社会的论述中，可以看到他的“人间佛教”思想的开放性。

  第三，佛教适应社会，要在变化中剔除不适合现代社会的东西，这是净化佛教的需要，也是探求佛法本质的需要。佛教在适应社会的发展中，就要对一些过时的“方便”进行“舍弃”i。在印顺法师看来，佛教适应社会的过程，也就是实现佛教现代化的过程。真正纯正的佛法只有在现实世间的实践中才能发扬出来，只有在佛教适应社会的变革中才能获得。

  总之，印顺法师把佛教适应社会的过程，看作佛教发挥善世利人作用的过程，看作把握和振兴纯正佛法的过程，看作佛教实现自身变革从而走向现代化的过程。这些反映了其“人间佛教”思想的开放性和实践性。

  印顺法师把部派佛教时期产生的经和律作为“人间佛教”的经典依据，把其中阐发的教理作为“人间佛教”的理论依据，把释迦牟尼佛作为实践“人间佛教”的样板，在此基础上，批判吸收大乘佛教的教义，形成自己“人间佛教”思想的核心内容。

  印顺法师对《阿含经》和律藏很重视，认为他的“人间佛教”理论就是从研究这些典籍，尤其是《阿含经》发端的。他也号召佛弟子们重视这些经典：“佛弟子所应特别重视的，是一切佛法的根源，释尊的教授教诫，早期集成的胜典——阿含和律”j。同时，他也认为，他从阅读这些“初期圣典中，领略到佛法的精神”，这是他“对佛法的理解”过程中的一个“重大变革”k。

  既然从这些经典中找到“人间佛教”理论的活水源头，那么人间佛教的实践样板，自然就是释迦牟尼佛。在他看来，释尊离开王室“出家更接近了人间”，这是“付出了最大的牺牲”，才“走进了人间”l。因此， 走进人间并不是轻而易举的事情。

  在讲到释迦牟尼的故国之情时，印顺法师指出：“那些以为念佛出家就可以不再闻问国家民族的存亡者，不论他如何谈修说证，无疑是我佛的叛徒！”m 倡导实践人间佛教者，首先要把国家和民族的利益放在高于一切的位置。信仰佛教，是与关心国家和民族的利益相一致的。

  释迦牟尼佛是实践“人间佛教”的榜样，佛当时的弟子们也过着与佛同样的生活，担负着以佛法教化民间的责任。印顺法师指出：“佛教本来是在人间的，佛与弟子，经常的‘游化人间’，就是住在山林，为了乞食，每天都要进入村落城邑，与人相接触而随缘弘化。”他赞扬印度的人间比丘，就是因为他们过着与释迦佛同样的生活：“人间比丘， 不是修苦行，与世隔绝，而是要随时传佛法，使佛法深入民间，以佛法净化人间。人间比丘，出家而过着大众生活，与社会保持联系，负起教化的责任，释尊也就是过这种生活的。”n 所以，今天实践人间佛教者， 也在传播佛法中净化自己和觉悟自己。“修菩萨行的，应该做利益人类的事业，传播法音，在不离世事，不离众生的原则下，净化自己，觉悟自己。”o

  印顺法师把“人间佛教”的基本精神、核心内容，明确地归结到释迦牟尼佛最初的教义和实践中，并不是把它作为大乘佛教的创造，也不是把它视为中国佛教或中国禅宗所独有。在他看来，“人间佛教，是整个佛教的重心，关涉到一切圣教。”p 这种在系统、全面研究佛教基础上得出的结论，符合历史实际，有益于满足佛教信众的现实需要，同时， 也使他的“人间佛教”思想具有理论的彻底性和系统性。

  倡导“以人为本”，可以说是印顺法师“人间佛教”思想的精髓。尊重人、为了人、依靠人和塑造人的思想，贯穿在“人间佛教”理论的始终。

  应该指出，无论在中国传统文化中还是在传统佛教教义中，都有着丰富的“以人为本”的思想。但是，像印顺法师这样论述和强调“以人为本”的观念，不能不说是对古代传统思想的发展。印顺法师指出：“现在所提倡的人间佛教，我们是人，应以人为中心。”q“以人为本”或“以人为中心”，是印顺法师反复强调的。在这里，我们可以从五个方面来考察他的人间佛教思想的这个特点。

  首先，从坚持“以人为本”方面发展太虚的思想。印顺法师指出：

  俗化与神化，不会导致佛法的昌明。中国佛教，一般专重死与鬼。太虚大师特提示“人生佛教”以为对治。然佛法以人为本，也不应天化、神化。不是鬼教，不是神教，非鬼化非神化的人间佛教，才能阐明佛法的真意义。r

  为了使佛教昌明，就要坚持“以人为本”的原则。倡导“人间佛教”的目的，就是为了人。

  其二，修行任何佛教法门，都应该以尽到人的本分为基础，都要依靠人。建立“人间佛教”，并不排斥修行佛教的其他法门。印顺法师曾经列举印光法师的例子，指出：印光平生极力弘扬念佛往生法门，但是：“他没有忽视佛教在人间的重要意义”，他是把“做成一像样的人，尽到人的本分，作为求生西方的基础”s。这就是说，修行佛教的任何法门，都要以依靠人、尊重人为基础，要把“以人为本”的精神贯彻到一切佛教修行法门中去。

  其三，用是否“以人为本”来分析和判别整体佛教。印顺法师指出：“如印度的后期佛教，背弃了佛教的真义，不以人为本，而以天为本（初重于一神倾向的梵天，后来重于泛神倾向的帝释天），使佛法受到非常的变化。”t因此，背离了“以人为本”的思想，也就是“背弃了佛教的真义”。无论是重鬼重死，还是重天重神，都是同样错误的。

  其四，趋向佛果的修行过程，就是为了人、服务人的过程。印顺法师继承太虚法师的思想，强调从人乘法趋向佛果。即人通过修行菩萨行而成佛。如何才能趋向佛果呢？印顺法师指出：“凡不为自己着想，存着利他的悲心，而作有利众生的事，就是实践菩萨行，趋向佛果了。”u 因此，个人的成就佛果，只有在为了人、服务人的过程中才可能实现。

  其五，成佛的过程及其成佛的实现，就是净化人、塑造人的过程， 是所谓“人格的最高完成”。他指出：“从经论去研究，知道人间佛教， 不但是适应时代的，而且还是契合佛法真理的。从人而学习菩萨行，由菩萨行修学圆满而成佛——人间佛教，为古代佛教所本有的，现在不过是将它的重要理论综合地抽绎出来，所以不是创新，而是将固有的‘刮垢磨光’。”v 由此可见，在人间成佛的过程是：从做人开始，通过圆满修习菩萨行，达到成佛的目的。所谓“成佛，即人的人性的净化与进展， 即人格的最高完成”w。

  印顺法师倡导“人间佛教”的终极目的，就是为了人。他把尊重人的思维方式和价值取向贯穿到“人间佛教”学说的始终，这无疑也是对佛教关爱众生优良传统的进一步发展。

  a 　太虚法师最早使用“人生佛教”概念，也兼用“人间佛教”。就其表述相关的思想而言，使用这两个概念没有什么差别。为了与印顺长老专门论述的“人间佛教”相区别，使用“人生佛教”。就太虚大师对这两个概念的偏重而言，更注重以前者来概括其思想。正如印顺法师所说：“太虚大师在民国十四五年提出了人生佛教，在抗战期间，还编成一部专书——《人生佛教》。大师认为，人间佛教不如人生佛教的意义好。”印顺：《佛在人间·人间佛教绪言》，第18页。本文所引印顺法师的著作，均根据电子版《印顺法师学术著作集》，引文只标书名和页码。

  b 　印顺法师在《游心法海六十年》中指出：“如三十年（1941）所写的《佛在人间》、《佛教是无神论的宗教》、《法海探真》，都是弘扬佛法的人间性，反对神化，探求佛法本质，而舍弃过了时的方便。”见《华雨集》第5册第13页。此后又说：“我明确地讨论人间佛教，1951年曾讲了：《人间佛教绪言》、《从依机设教来说明人间佛教》、《人性》、《人间佛教要略》。”见《华雨集》第5册第19页，《华雨集》第4册第47至48页所述与此相同。

  c 　印顺：《游心法海六十年》，《华雨集》第5 册第13 页。

  d 　印顺：《佛在人间·人间佛教绪言》，第18 页。

  e 　印顺：《佛在人间·人间佛教绪言》，第18 页。

  f 　《佛在人间·人间佛教要略》，第112 页。

  g 　同上。

  h 　印顺：《说一切有部为主的论书与论师之研究·序》。

  i 　《游心法海六十年》，《华雨集》第5册第19页。

  j 　《契理契机的人间佛教》，《华雨集》第4册第33页。

  k 　印顺：《中观今论·序》。

  l 　《佛在人间·佛在人间》，第12 页。

  m 　《佛在人间·佛在人间》，第9 页。

  n 　上引均见《佛在人间·从依机设教来说明人间佛教》，第58 页。

  o 　《契理契机的人间佛教》，《华雨集》，第4 册第49 页。

  p 　《佛在人间·人间佛教要略》，第100 页。

  q 　《佛在人间·从依机设教来说明人间佛教》第43页。

  r 　《说一切有部为主的论书与论师之研究·序》。

  s 　《佛在人间·人间佛教绪言》第17-18页。

  t 　《佛在人间·人间佛教绪言》第22页。

  u 　《佛在人间·人间佛教要略》，第112 页。

  v 　《佛在人间·人间佛教要略》，第99 页。

  w 　《佛在人间·从依机设教来说明人间佛教》，第73 页。

  Master Yinshun is one of the most fundamental propagators of “Humanistic Buddhism”. He developed the notion of humanistic Buddhism by going further on the trail already blazed by Taixu, who coined the term “Buddhism of Human Life” ①. It has a lasting vigor until now, as Buddhist leaders in China and abroad are still spreading his thoughts and passing them on. Today, humanistic Buddhism is not merely an intellectual trend, but a kind of Buddhist practice that attempts at modernism and has an international impact. To revisit Master Yinshun’s oeuvre at this point and to observe the new endeavors of contemporary Buddhism will not only bring more depth to our understanding of traditional Buddhism, but also help us gain a comprehensive view of the status of modern Buddhism and its future development.

  The 1940s and 1950s was basically the period when Master Yinshun conceived his thoughts on humanistic Buddhism and brought it to maturation.② His writings around 1941, such as Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, Buddhism: An Atheist Religion （《佛教是无神论的宗教》） and The Truths of Dharma （《法海探真》）, revealed his attempts at a humanized Buddhism. Around 1951, more of his works on this theme were out such as “Preface to Humanistic Buddhism”（《人间佛教绪言》）, The Human Nature （《人性》）, Humanistic Buddhism: Perceived from Gautama Buddha’s ImprovisationalTeachings （《从依机设教来说明人间佛教》） andThe Outlines of Humanistic Buddhism（《人间佛教要略》） etc.. Master Yinshun argued that when he explained the works like Buddha in the Human Realm（《佛在人间》）, “my thoughts over the Dharma in the general sense gradually come to formation and I am also ready to make my own assertions.” ③ It indicates that Master Yinshun only started to expose on humanistic Buddhism after he had attained his own unique overview of Buddhism in general.

  His emphasis on humanistic Buddhism can be attributed to two important reasons. One is the impact of his times. During the 1920s and 1930s, the Chinese Buddhists were adapting themselves to society and actively engaged in charity and education, and it influenced Master Yinshun. He pointed out that“ever since the founding of the Republic of China, Buddhists—monks and laity alike—are adapting themselves to the social life and devoting themselves to causes of charity and education. No matter how the outcome fares, they are at least gravitated towards one direction—that Buddhism is for the human realm.” ④ “Buddhism for the human realm” is one of the most essential aspects of Master Yinshun’s thoughts on humanistic Buddhism. He translated Buddhists’ engagement in charity and education as a sign of Buddhism’s social adaption and humanistic practices.

  The second cause is the impact of the humanistic Buddhism thoughts increasingly prevalent among the Buddhist intellectual circles. He said that“the issue of a humanistic Buddhism has been brought up on and off since the founding of the Republic of China. In 1934, Haichaoyin （《海潮音》, an influential Buddhist periodical founded by Master Taixu in 1920） issued a Humanistic Buddhism special, which generated a lot of consensus. Later, Master Cihang started another Buddhist periodical called Humanistic Buddhism（《人间佛教》）in Singapore. A quite petite magazine called Humanistic Buddhism Monthly《人间佛教月刊》）was also published in Jinyun County, Zhejiang Province during the anti-Japanese war period. Master Fafang also lectured on humanistic Buddhism in Thailand the year before.” ⑤

  All those social practices and academic expositions since the Republic of China, as seen by Master Yinshun, were the process that Buddhism adjusted itself to the society, and he accentuated this aspect in his thoughts on humanistic Buddhism, making exclusive expositions on what Buddhism’s social engagement is and how it is realized.

  First, Buddhism’s social engagement means laboring for the society’s well-being and benefiting people’s lives once Buddhists have gained a proper understanding of the society. Master Yinshun marked that“one of Buddhism’s most important ways to aid the world is to understand modern Chinese people’s current status, adapt to their needs and lead them on.” ⑥He added that “social engagement” was in essence to aid the world with Dharma, not to cater to all kinds of “improper tastes” that were circulating in the secular society ⑦ — a point he stressed on a number of occasions.

  Secondly, social engagement means making reforms to Buddhism per se. For multiple times Master Yinshun reiterated in his works that, it was against the true meaning of Dharma if Buddhism was taken as “something stationary”, or something “that universally acknowledged and permanently practicable”. By his expositions on how the Gautama Buddha “establishes his religious institution by improvisational preachings to different audience”, Master Yinshun made it apparent that the thoughts, institution and trends of Buddhism were all in a course of constant adaptation to the conditions of reality:

  Buddha establishes his religious institution by improvisational preachings to different audiences, and that is in itself spreading “the truth in the secular way”. To spread the truth incausalities and conditions, the preacher has to make adaptations and new developments in accordance with the time, localities, and the audiences. We all agree that “the Realm of the Dharma is permanent”, but Buddhism in the human realm—its thoughts, institutions and trends—are all subject to incessant changes.⑧

  In Buddhist scriptures, there is never such a thing as abstract doctrines that are universally applicable. Through Master Yinshun’s expositions on Buddhism’s social engagement, we can see how his thoughts on humanistic Buddhism are inclusive and embrace changes of the times.

  Thirdly, Buddhism’s social engagement would modernize Buddhism in the course of reform, eliminating practices that are already outdated. This meets both Buddhism’s need to purify itself and Buddhists’ need to explore the truth of the Dharma. In such a progress, Buddhism has to “discard some of its outdated approaches” ⑨i. For Master Yinshun, the progress of social engagement is in itself the progress of Buddhism’s modernization. The most authentic Buddhism is only to be attained when Buddhism is put to practice in the secular world and adapted to society’s ups and downs.

  In conclusion, Master Yinshun equals the progress of Buddhism’s social engagement with that in which Buddhism merits the well-being of the world, as well as with that of the orthodox Buddhism’s revival and modernization. These are indications of the inclusiveness and practicability of his thoughts on humanistic Buddhism.

  The Āgamas and Vinayas that came to formation during the sectarian Buddhism period consist the canonical ground of Master Yinshun’s thoughts on humanistic Buddhism. He bases his theories on the doctrines of these scriptures, and the ideal role that practices humanistic Buddhism is none other than the Gautama Buddha. On such basis and critically absorbing some of Mahayana Buddhism’s doctrines in addition, Master Yinshun establishes the body of his essential theories on humanistic Buddhism.

  Master Yinshun placed special emphasis on the Āgamas and the Vinayas and believed that his thoughts originated from his studies of these canons, especially the Āgamas. He also propagated the significance of these literatures to Buddhists: “These are what Buddhists should value most preciously—the origin of all Buddhist schools, the teachings of the Gautama Buddha, the sacred canons in Buddhism’s early period—Āgamas and Vinayas.” ⑩He also believed that when he “had a glimpse of Buddhism’s spirit from reading those early sacred canons”, it was “an powerful, transforming process” ⑪ in his own study of Buddhism.

  Since the origin of humanistic Buddhism is to be found in those early literatures, the role model who practices it is naturally the Gautama Buddha. In Master Yinshun’s interpretation, the Buddha’s “ordination was a step further into the secular world”, and he “made a tremendous sacrifice” by thus doing. It was nothing easy to go into the world. ⑫

  In his exposition on the Gautama Buddha’s connection with his homeland, Master Yinshun marked that “no matter how a Buddhist talk about his spiritual attainment, if he no longer cares about the fate of our nation ever since his ordination, he is a traitor of the religion!” ⑬ For a practitioner of humanistic Buddhism, the interest of the country and of the nation comes at the foremost of all, and a Buddhist’s faith is interconnected with one’s

  concern with the nation.

  Buddha Sakyamuni is the ideal practitioner of humanistic Buddhism, and his disciples live the same lifestyle as him and undertake the mission of educating the masses with Dharma. Master Yinshun pointed out “Buddhism was for the human realm in the very beginning. The Buddha and his disciples lived an itinerating life. They dwelled in woods and mountains, but visiting villages for alms, hence were in constant contact with folks and preached depending on the occasions.” He held in very high esteem the Indian Bhikkhus itinerating in the secular world for the very reason that they lived the same life as Buddha Sakyamuni did.“Bhikkhus itinerating in the secular world are not ascetics or detach from the world. They are ready to preach the Dharma on any occasion, so that the world could be infiltrated and purified by Dharma. They enter monkhood, but they are living with the secular masses, in touch with the social life, and undertaking their educational responsibilities, just as Buddha Sakyamuni did.” Practitioners of humanistic Buddhism today are also bringing their own purification and enlightenment in spreading the Dharma. “Those who are practicing the Mahayana Bodhisattvaway should spread Dharma and benefit the well-being of humankind. Their own purification and enlightenment comes at the condition that they are not detached from the world or isolated from people.”

  Master Yinshun does not consider humanistic Buddhism an invention of the Mahayana Buddhism, or something unique to Chinese Buddhism or the Chinese Zen sect, but rather, he explicitly traces its essential spirit back to the primary doctrines and practices of the Gautama Buddha. “Humanistic Buddhism is pivotal to all Buddhist schools, and it is associated with all sacred teachings,” he stated. His statement, based on highly synthesized study, is historically truthful, meets the realistic needs of Buddhist believers and, moreover, it makes his thoughts on humanistic Buddhism academically well-rooted and synthetic.

  Anthropocentrism can be deemed as the essence of Master Yinshun’s humanistic Buddhism. Throughout his theories, he has held up values that are respectful to human, for and reliant upon human, and educational for human.

  It should be denoted that, both Chinese traditional culture and Buddhism’s traditional doctrines have always borne anthropocentric notions. However, Master Yinshun brings such a tradition to a new level by holding humanism in such a high regard and extensively expositing on it. He pointed out, “as to the humanistic Buddhism we are promoting—we are human, that’s why we held human as central.” ⑭ We can view this trait in his thoughts from five perspectives.

  Firstly, he inherits and develops Taixu’s thoughts from an anthropocentric point of view. Master Yinshun pointed out,

  Neither secularization nor deification can bring Buddhism to revival. Chinese Buddhism has placed special emphasis on death and demons, hence Master Taixu propagates“Buddhism for the Human Life” to counter that. Yet, deification and mystification are other directions that the humanized Buddhism should avert from. Buddhism is not a religion for demons, nor for deities. The true meaning of Buddha-dharma is not revealed until the deification and mystification get undone. ⑮

  The focus on human is imperative for the revival of Buddhism. Human is the ultimate end of the propagation of humanistic Buddhism.

  Secondly, the practice of any Buddhist sect is not complete without the practitioner first fulfilling his/her obligations as a human being, and the practice is ultimately dependent on human abilities. The practice of humanistic Buddhism is not at war with the practice of other Buddhist sects. Regarding this, Master Yinshun cited Master Yinguang as an instance. He mentioned that throughout his life Master Yinguang preached the Pure Land practice, but “never overlook the importance of Buddhism in the human realm”. He took “being a descent person and fulfilling one’s obligations as the ground from which one can transcend to the Pure Land in the West”. ⑯ That means the practice of any Buddhist sect has to be reliant on and respectful to human. The humanistic spirit should be omnipresent in all sorts of Buddhist practices.

  Thirdly, Yinshun’s analysis and categorization of Buddhism is based on his anthropocentric point of view. He marked, “the later development of Indian Buddhism abandoned the essence of Buddhism, shifted the focus from human to deities （the monotheistic Brahma at first, then the pantheistic Śakra）, transforming Buddhism to a drastic extent.” ⑰ Thus, the discard of human as the central concern is in effect the discard of the essence of Buddhism. Be it in the form of mystification that emphasizes demons and funerals, or the deifications that emphasizes devas and heavenly abodes, they are both deviant from the right path.

  Fourthly, the practice leading to enlightenment is at the meantime the labor for the well-being of humankind. Master Yinshun, continuing the lineage starting from Master Taixu, emphasized attaining Buddhahood through the practice of the Bodhisattvaway. “If one is devoid of private motivations, is always compassionate, and benefits the lives of the masses, then one is practicing the Bodhisattvaway that induces to Buddhahood.” ⑱ Therefore, Buddhahood as one’s personal attainment can only be achieved through one’s devotion to the well-being of all humanity.

  Fifthly, the process and the ultimate realization of attaining Buddhahood is meanwhile a process of self-improvement and purification for the practitioner as a human, i.e. “the ultimate completion of humanhood”. He pointed out, “if we study the Āgama and the Vinayas, we will realize that humanistic Buddhism is not only what our era needs, but it also runs in the vein of the essential Buddhism. To practice the Bodhisattvaway as a human being, and attaining Buddhahood thereafter—that is something innate in Buddhism from ancestry. Now we are only comprehensively revisiting the same doctrines—we are not inventing, but only rediscovering.” ⑲ Hence the process of attaining Buddhahood as a mortal goes like this: starting as a mere human being, practicing the Bodhisattvaway until perfection, and reaching the final plane of Buddhahood. The so-called “Buddhahood is actually the purification and perfection of the human nature, that is, the ultimate completion of humanhood”. ⑳

  Humanity is the ultimate end of Master Yinshun’s thoughts on humanistic Buddhism. The esteem for humankind and the humanistic values runs throughout humanistic Buddhism thoughts of Master Yinshun, and doubtlessly, it takes Buddhism’s longstanding tradition of compassion for the masses to yet another higher level.

  ① 　 Master Taixu was the first to coin the term “Buddhism for the Human Life”. However, regarding the theories involved, the difference between the two terms—“Buddhism for the Human Life” and “humanistic Buddhism”—is negligible. Here “Buddhism for the Human Life” is adopted only to be nuanced from Master Yinshun’s “humanistic Buddhism”. Master Taixu was disposed to use the former term in his expositions, just as Master Yinshun said, “Master Taixu coined the term ‘Buddhism for the Human Life’ around 1925 and 1926, and he compiled a monograph, Buddhism for the Human Life, during the anti-Japanese War period. He considered the term more expressive than humanistic Buddhism.” （Yinshun, Buddha in the Human Realm, “Preface to Humanistic Buddhism”, p. 28. All of Master Yinshun’s works cited in this paper are from Academic Collection of Master Yinshun, with titles of the books and page numbers footnoted.）

  ② 　 In “Sixty Years’ Journey in the Ocean of Dharma”（《游心法海六十年》）, Master Yinshun marked, “My writings in 1941, such as Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, Buddhism: An Atheist Religion （《佛教是无神论的宗教》） and The Truths of Dharma （《法海探真》） all propagated the humanness in the Dharma in quest of the true nature of Buddhism, opposed against deification, and discarded outdated practices.” （Collection of the Flowery Rain 《华雨集》, Vol. 5, p. 19. Page 47-48, Vol.4 of the Collection basically expressed the same notions.）

  ③ 　 Yinshun, “Sixty Years’ Journey in the Ocean of Dharma”（《游心法海六十年》）, Collection of the Flowery Rain 《华雨集》, Vol. 5, p. 13.

  ④ 　 Yinshun, “Preface to Humanistic Buddhism”（《人间佛教绪言》）, Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, p. 18.

  ⑤ 　 Yinshun, “Preface to Humanistic Buddhism”（《人间佛教绪言》）, Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, p. 18.

  ⑥　 Yinshun, “A Brief Guide to Humanistic Buddhism”（《人间佛教要略》）, Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, p. 112.

  ⑦　 Ibid.

  ⑧　 Yinshun, Preface to Study on Sarvāstivāda’s Canons and Scholars （《说一切有部为主的论书与论师之研究》）.

  ⑨　 Yinshun, “Sixty Years’ Journey in the Ocean of Dharma”（《游心法海六十年》）, Collection of the Flowery Rain 《华雨集》, Vol. 5, p. 19.

  ⑩ 　 Yinshun, Collection of the Flowery Rain 《华雨集》, Vol. 4, p. 33.

  ⑪　 Yinshun, Preface to A Contemporary Commentary on Madhyamaka （《中观今论》）.

  ⑫　 Yinshun, “Buddha in the Human Realm”（《佛在人间》）, Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, p. 12.

  ⑬　 Yinshun, “Buddha in the Human Realm”（《佛在人间》）, Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, p. 9.

  ⑭　 Yinshun, “Humanistic Buddhism: Perceived from Gautama Buddha’s Improvisational Teachings”（《从依机设教来说明人间佛教》）, Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, p. 43.

  ⑮　 Yinshun, Preface to Study on Sarvāstivāda’s Canons and Scholars （《说一切有部为主的论书与论师之研究》）.

  ⑯　 Yinshun, “Preface to Humanistic Buddhism”（《人间佛教绪言》）, Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, p. 17-18.

  ⑰　 Ibid.p. 22.

  ⑱　 Yinshun, “A Brief Guide to Humanistic Buddhism”（《人间佛教要略》）, Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, p. 112.

  ⑲　 Yinshun, “A Brief Guide to Humanistic Buddhism”（《人间佛教要略》）, Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, p. 99.

  ⑳　 Yinshun, “Humanistic Buddhism: Institutional Establishment via Improvisational Preachings”（《从依机设教来说明人间佛教》）, Buddha in the Human Realm （《佛在人间》）, p. 73.